Real-Time NMR Distribution While Drilling

ABSTRACT

NMR spin echo signals are acquired downhole. Principal Component Analysis is used to represent the signals by a weighted combination of the principal components and these weights are telemetered to the surface. At the surface, the NMR spin echo signals are recovered and inverted to give formation properties. Real-time displays may be used for determining formation properties and for altering the acquisition parameters

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This applications claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/055,803 filed on May 23, 2008.

BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE

1. Field of the Disclosure

The present disclosure relates generally to determining geological properties of subsurface formations using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (“NMR”) methods for logging wellbores, particularly for representing NMR echo trains by a limited number of functional parameters, enabling efficient transmission of echo train from a downhole location.

2. Description of the Related Art

NMR methods are among the most useful non-destructive techniques of material analysis. When hydrogen nuclei are placed in an applied static magnetic field, a small majority of spins are aligned with the applied field in the lower energy state, since the lower energy state in more stable than the higher energy state. The individual spins precess about the axis of the applied static magnetic field vector at a resonance frequency also termed as Larmor frequency. This frequency is characteristic to a particular nucleus and proportional to the applied static magnetic field. An alternating magnetic field at the resonance frequency in the Radio Frequency (RF) range, applied by a transmitting antenna to a subject or specimen in the static magnetic field transfers nuclear spins into a coherent superposition of the lower energy state and the higher energy state. In this superposition state the magnetization of the spins precesses about the axis of the static magnetic field vector and therefore induces an oscillating voltage in a receiver antenna even after the transmitted field is switched off, whose amplitude and rate of decay depend on the physicochemical properties of the material being examined. The applied RF field is designed to perturb the thermal equilibrium of the magnetized nuclear spins, and the time dependence of the emitted energy is determined by the manner in which this system of spins looses coherence and returns to equilibrium magnetization. The return is characterized by two parameters: T₁, the longitudinal or spin-lattice relaxation time; and T₂, the transverse or spin-spin relaxation time.

Measurements of NMR parameters of fluid filling the pore spaces of earth formations such as relaxation times of the hydrogen spins, diffusion coefficient and/or the hydrogen density is the basis for NMR well logging. NMR well logging instruments can be used for determining properties of earth formations including the fractional volume of pore space and the fractional volume of mobile fluid filling the pore spaces of the earth formations.

One basic problem encountered in NMR logging or MRI (imaging) is the vast amount of data that has to be analyzed. In well logging with wireline instruments, the downhole processing capabilities are limited as is the ability to transmit data to an uphole location for further analysis since all the data are typically sent up a wireline cable with limited bandwidth. In the so-called Measurement-while-drilling methods, the problem is exacerbated due to the harsh environment in which any downhole processor must operate and to the extremely limited telemetry capability: data are typically transmitted at a rate of no more than twenty bits per second.

A second problem encountered in NMR logging and MRI is that of analysis of the data. As will be discussed below, the problem of data compression and of data analysis are closely inter-related.

Methods of using NMR measurements for determining the fractional volume of pore space and the fractional volume of mobile fluid are described, for example, in Spin Echo Magnetic Resonance Logging: Porosity and Free Fluid Index Determination, M. N. Miller et al, Society of Petroleum Engineers paper no. 20561, Richardson, Tex., 1990. In porous media there is a significant difference in the T₁ and T₂ relaxation time spectra of the fluids mixture filling the pore space. Thus, for example, light hydrocarbons and gas may have T₁ relaxation time of about several seconds, while T₂ may be thousand times less. This phenomenon is due to diffusion effect in internal and external static magnetic field gradients. Internal magnetic field gradients are due to magnetic susceptibility difference between rock formation matrix and pore filling fluid.

Since oil is found in porous rock formations, the relationships between porous rocks and the fluids filling their pore spaces are extremely complicated and difficult to model. Nuclear magnetic resonance is sensitive to main petrophysical parameters, but has no capabilities to establish these complex relationships. Oil and water are generally found together in reservoir rocks. Since most reservoir rocks are hydrophilic, droplets of oil sit in the center of pores and are unaffected by the pore surface. The water-oil interface normally does not affect relaxation, therefore, the relaxation rate of oil is primarily proportional to its viscosity. However, such oil by itself is a very complex mixture of hydrocarbons that may be viewed as a broad spectrum of relaxation times. In a simple case of pure fluid in a single pore, there are two diffusion regimes that govern the relaxation rate. Rocks normally have a very broad distribution of pore sizes and fluid properties. Thus it is not surprising that magnetization decays of fluid in rock formations are non-exponential. The most commonly used method of analyzing relaxation data is to calculate a spectrum of relaxation times. The Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG) pulse sequence is used to determine the transverse magnetization decay. The non-exponential magnetization decays are fit to the multi-exponential form:

$\begin{matrix} {{M(t)} = {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{L}{{m\left( T_{2i} \right)}^{{- t}/T_{2i}}}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

where M(t) represents the spin echo amplitudes, equally spaced in time, and the T_(2i) are predetermined time constants, equally spaced on a logarithm scale, typically between 0.3 ms and 3000 ms. The set of m are found using a regularized nonlinear least squares technique. The function m(T_(2i)), conventionally called a T₂ distribution, usually maps linearly to a volumetrically weighted distribution of pore sizes.

The calibration of this mapping is addressed in several publications. Prior art solutions seek a solution to the problem of mathematical modeling the received echo signals by the use of several techniques, including the use of non-linear regression analysis of the measurement signal; non-linear least square fit routines, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,023,551 to Kleinberg et al, and others. Other prior art techniques include a variety of signal modeling techniques, such as polynomial rooting, singular value decomposition (SVD) and miscellaneous refinements thereof, to obtain a better approximation of the received signal. A problem with prior art signal compressions is that some information is lost.

Other methods of compression of NMR data are discussed, for example in U.S. Pat. No. 4,973,111 to Haacke Inversion methods discussed in the two references generally are computationally intensive and still end up with a large number of parameters that have to be transmitted uphole. In particular, no simple methods have been proposed to take advantage of prior knowledge about the structure of the investigated material and the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio of the received echo signal. Also, no efficient solutions have been proposed to combine advanced mathematical models with simple signal processing algorithms to increase the accuracy and numerical stability of the parameter estimates. Finally, existing solutions require the use of significant computational power which makes the practical use of those methods inefficient, and frequently impossible to implement in real-time applications.

U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/845,983 of Thern et al. discloses a method which includes conveying a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensing apparatus into a borehole, using the NMR sensing apparatus for obtaining a signal indicative of the property of the earth formation, using a predetermined matrix to estimate from the signal a parametric representation of the relaxation of nuclear spins in terms of at least one basis vector, telemetering the parametric representation to a surface location and, at the surface location, using the telemetered parametric representation to estimate the property of the earth formation. The signal may be a spin echo signal and representation of relaxation of nuclear spins may include a transverse relaxation time (T₂) distribution. The at least one basis vector may be a Gaussian function, and parametric representation may include a mean, a standard deviation, and an amplitude of the Gaussian function. Defining the predetermined matrix may be done by performing a regression analysis on synthetic NMR signals and/or NMR signals measured on samples having known properties. The dependent variable in the regression analysis may be a spin echo signal. The regression analysis may be a partial least-squares, a principal component regression, an inverse least-squares, a ridge regression, a Neural Network, a neural net partial least-squares regression, and/or a locally weighted regression. The determined property may be bound volume irreducible, effective porosity, bound water, clay-bound water, total porosity, a permeability, and/or a pore size distribution.

A potential drawback of the method of Thern is the lack of adaptability: the number of Gaussian functions used to characterize the T₂ distribution and the matrix are predefined and may not be equally suitable for all types of earth formations and all types of pulse sequences used in acquisition of the data. These potential drawbacks are addressed in the present disclosure.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

One embodiment of the disclosure is a method of determining a property of an earth formation. The method includes conveying a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensing apparatus into a borehole, using the NMR sensing apparatus for obtaining at least one signal indicative of the property of the earth formation, representing the at least one signal using a set of basis vectors derived from component analysis, and telemetering a representation of the at least one signal as a combination of the basis vectors to a surface location. The at least one signal is used to estimate the property of the earth formation.

Another embodiment of the disclosure is an apparatus for determining a property of an earth formation. The apparatus includes a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensing apparatus configured to be conveyed into a borehole and obtain at least one signal indicative of the property of the earth formation. The apparatus also includes a downhole processor configured to represent the at least one signal using a set of basis vectors derived from component analysis and telemeter a representation of the at least one signal as a combination of the basis vectors to a surface location; reconstruct the at least one NMR signal, and estimate a value of the property.

Another embodiment of the disclosure is a computer-readable medium product having stored thereon instructions that when read by at least one processor cause the at least one processor to perform a method. The method includes representing, using a set of basis vectors derived from component analysis, at least one signal obtained by a nuclear magnetic resonance sensing apparatus in a borehole; telemetering a representation of the at least one signal as a combination of the basis vectors to a surface location; reconstructing the at least one signal at the surface location using the telemetered representation; and using the reconstruction of the at least one signal to estimate a value of the property of the earth formation

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present disclosure is best understood with reference to the accompanying figures in which like numerals refer to like elements and in which:

FIG. 1 shows a measurement-while-drilling tool suitable for use with the present disclosure;

FIG. 2 (prior art) shows a sensor section of a measurement-while-drilling device suitable for use with the present disclosure;

FIG. 3 shows exemplary principal component signals recovered from an ensemble of echo trains;

FIG. 4 shows (top): an exemplary echo train, and (bottom) comparison of an NMR T₂ with a reconstructed distribution;

FIG. 5 shows the joint compression of data and a trainlet;

FIG. 6 is a flow chart showing further details of the implementation of the disclosure;

FIG. 7 illustrates the conceptual link between fluid distribution, an echo train, and a T₂ distribution;

FIG. 8 illustrates the volumetrics of an earth formation;

FIG. 9 illustrates the conceptual link between grain size and T₂;

FIG. 10 illustrates a display that includes volumetrics;

FIG. 11 illustrates the principle of unsupervised hierarchical clustering of T₂ distributions;

FIG. 12 illustrates the identified clusters in the T₂ distribution;

FIG. 13 shows the T₂ distribution of the five clusters identified in the well data;

FIGS. 14A and B shows the fluid distribution and the grain size distribution for the first identified cluster;

FIGS. 15A and B shows the fluid distribution and the grain size distribution for the second identified cluster;

FIG. 16A and B shows the fluid distribution for the third identified cluster;

FIG. 17A and B shows the fluid distribution and the grain size distribution for the fourth identified cluster; and

FIG. 18A and B shows the fluid distribution and the grain size distribution for the fifth identified cluster.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE

FIG. 1 shows a schematic diagram of a drilling system 10 with a drillstring 20 carrying a drilling assembly 90 (also referred to as the bottom hole assembly, or “BHA”) conveyed in a “wellbore” or “borehole” 26 for drilling the wellbore. The drilling system 10 includes a conventional derrick 11 erected on a floor 12 which supports a rotary table 14 that is rotated by a prime mover such as an electric motor (not shown) at a desired rotational speed. The drillstring 20 includes a tubing such as a drill pipe 22 or a coiled-tubing extending downward from the surface into the borehole 26. The drillstring 20 is pushed into the wellbore 26 when a drill pipe 22 is used as the tubing. For coiled-tubing applications, a tubing injector, such as an injector (not shown), however, is used to move the tubing from a source thereof, such as a reel (not shown), to the wellbore 26. The drill bit 50 attached to the end of the drillstring breaks up the geological formations when it is rotated to drill the borehole 26. If a drill pipe 22 is used, the drillstring 20 is coupled to a drawworks 30 via a Kelly joint 21, swivel 28, and line 29 through a pulley 23. During drilling operations, the drawworks 30 is operated to control the weight on bit, which is an important parameter that affects the rate of penetration. The operation of the drawworks is well known in the art and is thus not described in detail herein. For the purposes of this disclosure, it is necessary to know the axial velocity (rate of penetration or ROP) of the bottomhole assembly. Depth information and ROP may be communicated downhole from a surface location. Alternatively, the method disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,769,497 to Dubinsky et al. having the same assignee as the present application and the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference may be used. The method of Dubinsky uses axial accelerometers to determine the ROP. During drilling operations, a suitable drilling fluid 31 from a mud pit (source) 32 is circulated under pressure through a channel in the drillstring 20 by a mud pump 34. The drilling fluid passes from the mud pump 34 into the drillstring 20 via a desurger (not shown), fluid line 38 and Kelly joint 21. The drilling fluid 31 is discharged at the borehole bottom 51 through an opening in the drill bit 50. The drilling fluid 31 circulates uphole through the annular space 27 between the drillstring 20 and the borehole 26 and returns to the mud pit 32 via a return line 35. The drilling fluid acts to lubricate the drill bit 50 and to carry borehole cutting or chips away from the drill bit 50. A sensor S₁ typically placed in the line 38 provides information about the fluid flow rate. A surface torque sensor S₂ and a sensor S₃ associated with the drillstring 20 respectively provide information about the torque and rotational speed of the drillstring. Additionally, a sensor (not shown) associated with line 29 is used to provide the hook load of the drillstring 20.

In one embodiment of the disclosure, the drill bit 50 is rotated by only rotating the drill pipe 22. In another embodiment of the disclosure, a downhole motor 55 (mud motor) is disposed in the drilling assembly 90 to rotate the drill bit 50 and the drill pipe 22 is rotated usually to supplement the rotational power, if required, and to effect changes in the drilling direction.

In an exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1, the mud motor 55 is coupled to the drill bit 50 via a drive shaft (not shown) disposed in a bearing assembly 57. The mud motor rotates the drill bit 50 when the drilling fluid 31 passes through the mud motor 55 under pressure. The bearing assembly 57 supports the radial and axial forces of the drill bit. A stabilizer 58 coupled to the bearing assembly 57 acts as a centralizer for the lowermost portion of the mud motor assembly.

In one embodiment of the disclosure, a drilling sensor module 59 is placed near the drill bit 50. The drilling sensor module contains sensors, circuitry and processing software and algorithms relating to the dynamic drilling parameters. Such parameters typically include bit bounce, stick-slip of the drilling assembly, backward rotation, torque, shocks, borehole and annulus pressure, acceleration measurements and other measurements of the drill bit condition. A suitable telemetry or communication sub 72 using, for example, two-way telemetry, is also provided as illustrated in the drilling assembly 90. The drilling sensor module processes the sensor information and transmits it to the surface control unit 40 via the telemetry system 72.

The communication sub 72, a power unit 78 and an MWD tool 79 are all connected in tandem with the drillstring 20. Flex subs, for example, are used in connecting the MWD tool 79 in the drilling assembly 90. Such subs and tools form the bottom hole drilling assembly 90 between the drillstring 20 and the drill bit 50. The drilling assembly 90 makes various measurements including the pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance measurements while the borehole 26 is being drilled. The communication sub 72 obtains the signals and measurements and transfers the signals, using two-way telemetry, for example, to be processed on the surface. Alternatively, the signals can be processed using a downhole processor in the drilling assembly 90.

The surface control unit or processor 40 also receives signals from other downhole sensors and devices and signals from sensors S₁-S₃ and other sensors used in the system 10 and processes such signals according to programmed instructions provided to the surface control unit 40. The surface control unit 40 displays desired drilling parameters and other information on a display/monitor 42 utilized by an operator to control the drilling operations. The surface control unit 40 typically includes a computer or a microprocessor-based processing system, memory for storing programs or models and data, a recorder for recording data, and other peripherals. The control unit 40 is typically adapted to activate alarms 44 when certain unsafe or undesirable operating conditions occur.

A suitable device for use of the present disclosure is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,215,304 to Slade, the contents of which are fully incorporated herein by reference. It should be noted that the device taught by Slade is for exemplary purposes only, and the method of the present disclosure may be used with many other NMR logging devices, and may be used for wireline as well as MWD applications. Examples of such devices are given in U.S. Pat. No. 5,557,201 to Kleinberg, U.S. Pat. No. 5,280,243 to Miller, U.S. Pat. No. 5,055,787 to Kleinberg, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,979 to Taicher.

Referring now to FIG. 2, the tool has a drill bit 107 at one end, a sensor section 102 behind the drill head, and electronics 101. The sensor section 102 comprises a magnetic field generating assembly for generating a B₀ magnetic field (which is substantially time invariant over the duration of a measurement), and an RF system for transmitting and receiving RF magnetic pulses and echoes. The magnetic field generating assembly comprises a pair of axially spaced main magnets 103, 104 having opposed pole orientations (i.e. with like magnetic poles facing each other), and three ferrite members 109, 110 axially arranged between the magnets 103, 104. The ferrite members are made of “soft” ferrite which can be distinguished over “hard” ferrite by the shape of the BH curve which affects both intrinsic coercivity (H_(j) the intersection with the H axis) and initial permeability (μ_(i), the gradient of the BH curve in the unmagnetized case). Soft ferrite μ_(i) values typically range from 10 to 10000 whereas hard ferrite has μ_(i), of about 1. Therefore the soft ferrite has large initial permeability (typically greater than 10, preferably greater than 1000). The RF system comprises a set of RF transmit antenna and RF receive antenna coil windings 105 arranged as a central “field forming” solenoid group 113 and a pair of outer “coupling control” solenoid groups 114.

The tool has a mud pipe 160 with a clear central bore 106 and a number of exit apertures 161-164 to carry drilling mud to the bit 107, and the main body of the tool is provided by a drill collar 108. Drilling mud is pumped down the mud pipe 160 by a pump 121 returning around the tool and the entire tool is rotated by a drive 120. Coiled tubing or a drillstring may be used for coupling the drive to the downhole assembly.

The drill collar 108 provides a recess 170 for RF transmit antenna and RF receive antenna coil windings 105. Gaps in the pockets between the soft ferrite members are filled with non-conducting material 131, 135 (e.g: ceramic or high temperature plastic) and the RF coils 113, 114 are then wound over the soft ferrite members 109, 110. The soft ferrites 109, 110 and RF coil assembly 113, 114 are pressure impregnated with suitable high temperature, low viscosity epoxy resin (not shown) to harden the system against the effects of vibration, seal against drilling fluid at well pressure, and reduce the possibility of magnetoacoustic oscillations. The RF coils 113, 114 are then covered with wear plates 111 typically ceramic or other durable non-conducting material to protect them from the rock chippings flowing upwards past the tool in the borehole mud.

Because of the opposed magnet configuration, the device of Slade has an axisymmetric magnetic field and region of investigation 112 that is unaffected by tool rotation. Use of the ferrite results in a region of investigation that is close to the borehole. This is not a major problem on a MWD tool because there is little invasion of the formation by borehole drilling fluids prior to the logging. The region of investigation is within a shell with a radial thickness of about 20 mm and an axial length of about 50 mm. The gradient within the region of investigation is less than 2.7 G/cm. It is to be noted that these values are for the Slade device and, as noted above, the method of the present disclosure may also be used with other suitable NMR devices.

The method of the present disclosure is based on a representation of the acquired echo train of the earth formation as a weighted combination of principal components derived during data acquisition. This enables compression of the data: typically, instead of a thousand samples being required to depict a single echo train, 10 principal components are transmitted for each echo train. The principal components are derived downhole and may be transmitted uphole when previously derived principal components do not provide an adequate reconstruction of the echo trains downhole. At the surface, the received data (which may include adjective noise) is decompressed and inverted to give a T₂ distribution. We briefly discuss the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method for compression and decompression of the data.

We represent a sequence of N echo trains, each M echoes long, by the matrix:

$\begin{matrix} {F = {\begin{bmatrix} f_{1,1} & f_{1,2} & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots & f_{1,{M - 1}} & f_{1,M} \\ f_{2,1} & f_{2,2} & \; & \; & \; & \; & f_{2,{M - 1}} & f_{2,M} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \; & \ddots & \; & \; & \vdots & \vdots \\ f_{{N - 1},1} & f_{{N - 1},2} & \; & \; & \ddots & \; & f_{{N - 1},{M - 1}} & f_{{N - 1},M} \\ f_{N,1} & f_{N,2} & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \; & f_{N,{M - 1}} & f_{N,M} \end{bmatrix}.}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

Typically, the echo trains are 1000 samples long. The mean value of the j-th echo is denoted by:

$\begin{matrix} {\mu_{j} = {\frac{1}{N}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}{f_{i,j}.}}}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

We next define the covariance matrix of the data by:

$\begin{matrix} {{C = {\frac{1}{M}\left\lbrack {F^{\prime \; T} \cdot F^{\prime}} \right\rbrack}},{where}} & (3) \\ {F^{\prime} = {F - {\left\lbrack {\mu_{1},\mu_{2},{\ldots \mspace{14mu} \mu_{M - 1}},\mu_{M}} \right\rbrack.}}} & (4) \end{matrix}$

The covariance matrix C is decomposed into its eigenvalues and eigenvectors

C=VΛV ⁻¹   (5),

where V is a matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors of C and A is the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues:

$\begin{matrix} {{\Lambda = \begin{bmatrix} \lambda_{1} & 0 & \ldots & \ldots & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & \lambda_{2} & \; & \; & 0 & 0 \\ \vdots & \; & \ddots & \; & \; & \vdots \\ \vdots & \; & \; & \ddots & \; & \vdots \\ 0 & 0 & \; & \; & \lambda_{M - 1} & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & \ldots & \ldots & 0 & \lambda_{M} \end{bmatrix}},} & (6) \\ {{{with}\mspace{14mu} \lambda_{1}} \geq \lambda_{2} \geq {\lambda_{3}\mspace{14mu} \ldots}\mspace{14mu} \geq \lambda_{M - 1} \geq {\lambda_{M}.}} & (7) \end{matrix}$

With this ordering of the eigenvalues, the eigenvectors of V are the principal components.

The representation of the echo train data is done by the transformation

{right arrow over (M)}′=V.{right arrow over (E)}  (8),

and the inverse transform

{right arrow over (E)}=V ⁻¹ {right arrow over (M)}′=V ^(T) {right arrow over (M)}′  (9)

may be used to recover the data. Data compression is accomplished by truncating the matrix V to the first k rows corresponding to the dominant eigenvalues in eqn. (7). Table I shows an example of the dominant eigenvalues for an exemplary sequence of echo trains.

TABLE I Variance distribution Principal Eigenvalue of Value of this Cumulative Component Cov(F) component variance 1 214.0 94.3923 94.3923 2 10.7 4.7247 99.1171 3 1.57 0.6920 99.8091 4 0.327 0.1439 99.9530 5 0.0790 0.0348 99.9878 6 0.0203 0.0090 99.9968 7 0.00537 0.0024 99.9991 8 0.00142 0.0006 99.9998 9 0.000376 0.0002 99.9999 10 0.0000984 0.0000 100.0000 11 0.00002550 0.0000 100.0000 12 0.00000651 0.0000 100.0000 13 0.00000164 0.0000 100.0000 14 0.00000041 0.0000 100.0000 15 0.00000010 0.0000 100.0000

FIG. 3 shows the eigenvectors corresponding to the seven largest eigenvalues for the echo trains used in the derivation of Table I. They are ordered according to the magnitude of the eigenvalues 301, 303, 305, 307, 309, 311, 313.

In the lower part of FIG. 4, the curve 451 shows the original T₂ distribution corresponding to the noise free echo train. Using the curve 451, an original echo train (contained in 401 is generated). Noise is added to the original echo train to give a noisy echo train, also contained in 401 in the upper part of FIG. 4. The curve 453 is the result of inverting the noisy echo train. Comparison of 451 and 453 shows that even with a low level of noise, the inversion deviates from the correct result. Compressing and decompressing the noisy echo train gives a result that is still contained in 401. As discussed below, the results of the decompression are made up of the eigenvectors and are not multiexponential. Inverting the results of decompression gives the curve 455. Such a result is unsatisfactory because the inversion algorithm attempts to fit a multi-exponential to a curve that is not a multi-exponential any more. In order to avoid problems caused by the decompression results being non-exponential, a small amount of noise is added to the decompressed data before the inversion is carried out. When this noisy decompressed data is inverted, the result is shown by 457. Good agreement is seen between original T₂ distribution and the results of inversion using PCA.

The PCA method may also be used to compress two or more echo trains in a single operation. The top portion of FIG. 5 shows a concatenation of two echo trains. The early portion 501 was acquired with a short wait time to get a measurement of rapidly relaxing components of the T₂ spectrum while the latter portion 503 is a long echo train intended to recover the slower components of the T₂ spectrum. The bottom portion of FIG. 5 shows little difference between the actual T₂ distribution and the results of using PCA on the concatenated echo trains.

It should be noted that the PCA also works for T₁ data. It has been found that joint compression of T₁ and T₂ data is satisfactory only for a fixed value of T₁/T₂. As this ratio is variable downhole, the joint compression of T₁ and T₂ data is of limited value.

Turning now to FIG. 6, a flow chart summarizing the implementation of the method, including further details of the fitting method described above is shown. NMR data are acquired downhole 607. A truncated eigenvector matrix is applied 609 to the acquired echo train X. The compressed data are telemetered to the surface 613 and a reconstruction of the echo train is inverted to give the T₂ distribution 615.

In one embodiment of the invention, the eigenvector matrix is generated at the surface and the truncated matrix is loaded into the memory of the downhole processor. We create synthetic single-exponential data. This is a pure exponential function, 1000 values equally spaced by TE=0.6 ms, with given T₂. We create such a series of synthetic data values (a single exponential) for every value of T₂ that is to be considered, e.g. for 0.3 ms, 0.35 ms, . . . , 3000 ms. This gives 64 series of data values of single-exponentials. We note every conceivable measured echo train can be decomposed into a set of these series of data values. We therefore use PCA on this data to learn about its statistical properties. We want to do a coordinate system rotation (in a 1000 dimensional vector space), and we use PCA now to learn which basis vectors must be used in order to most economically express any multi-exponential in the new coordinate system. Note that while the original data matrix consisted of exponentials, after PCA, the eigenvectors are not necessarily exponentials. After the PCA is done, the matrix is truncated to the number of rows corresponding to the dominant eigenvalues. See eqn. (9).

In an alternate embodiment of the invention, the PCA is done downhole. This requires enormous computation power and is to be done sparingly in situations where it is established that a previously determined set of eigenvectors does not adequately represent the data. This may happen if, for example, parameters of the pulse sequence are changed, or if there is a major change in lithology and/or fluid content of the formation.

The recreation of properties of interest may cover T₂ distribution, volumetrics, permeability, echo trains, and other rock and fluid properties that are based on NMR data. It should further be noted that the method itself is of course not limited to downhole applications, As noted in Hamdan, bound volume irreducible, effective porosity, bound water, clay-bound water, and total porosity are among the formation properties that may be determined. From the T₂ relaxation spectrum, using an inversion method it is possible to estimate the pore-size distribution. The use of a pore-scale geometric model used in inverting NMR spectra is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 7,363,131 to Georgi et al., having the same assignee as the present disclosure and the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Determination of permeability is discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,686,736 to Schoen et al., having the same assignee as the present disclosure and the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

In an alternate embodiment of the disclosure, instead of principal component regression or principal component analysis (PCA), a method referred to as independent component analysis (ICA) may be used. In PCA, the basis vectors are obtained by solving the algebraic eigenvalue problem

R ^(T)(XX ^(T))R=Λ  (10)

where X is a data matrix whose columns are training samples (with the mean values removed), R is a matrix of eigenvectors, and Λ is the corresponding diagonal matrix of eigenvalues. With such a representation, the projection of data, C_(n)=R_(n) ^(T)X, from the original p dimensional space to a subspace spanned by n principal eigenvectors is optimal in the mean squared error sense. That is, the reprojection of C_(n) back into the p dimensional space has minimum reconstruction error. In fact, if n is large enough to include all the eigenvectors with non-zero eigenvalues, the reprojection is lossless. The goal in PCA is to minimize the reconstruction error from compressed data.

In ICA, on the other hand the goal is to minimize the statistical dependence between the basis vectors. Mathematically, this can be written as WX^(T)=U, where ICA searches for a linear transformation W that minimizes the statistical dependence between the rows of U, given a training set X (as before). Unlike PCA, the basis vectors in ICA are neither orthogonal nor ranked in order. Also, there is no closed form expression to find W. Instead iterative algorithms have to be used. See Baek et al., PCA vs. ICA: A comparison on the FERET data set.

As noted by Baek, global properties are better represented by PCA while local structure is better represented by ICA. Based on a comparison of PCA to ICA, Baek concluded that for facial recognition problems (that are holistic in nature), PCA gave superior results. Baek further conjectured that evaluations on localized recognition tasks, such as recognizing facial expressions, ICA may give better results.

First and foremost, NMR measurements are indicative of the pore-size distribution in an earth formation. Secondarily, they are indicative of fluid types. By their very nature, the primary pore-size distribution in sedimentary rocks reflects the depositional energy, something that is episodic. Hence a significant amount of local structure is to be expected in the pore-size distribution. To put it another way, one would, for example, expect a high correlation between occurrences of pore-sizes of 1 μm and 1.01 μm: this would imply a local structure in the T₂ distribution and the T₁ distribution. In addition, the presence of heavy oil in a formation would also imply a local structure in the relaxation time distributions-once heavy oil has formed, it cannot be undone to light oil.

We next discuss implementation of ICA and differences with PCA. NMR relaxation of fluids in rocks exhibits multi-exponential behavior, which can be expressed in a discrete model as follows:

$\begin{matrix} {{E(t)} = {\sum\limits_{j}{A_{j}^{(\frac{t}{T_{2j}})}}}} & (11) \end{matrix}$

Assuming T_(2j)=0.2 . . . 8192 using increment of 2^((1/4)), then T₂ will have a length of 64. This will translate into matrix notation when sampling the t at TE=0.6 μs and 1000 samples as:

E _(1×1000) =A _(1×64) ×F _(64×1000)   (12),

where A_(j) is proportional to the proton population of pores which have a relaxation time of T_(2j), E(t) is the resultant echo-train in continuous time and E is discretized version of E(t). We first map all possible echo-trains with single exponential decay constant into a matrix F. Next, Through Independent Component Analysis we decompose the F matrix into 2 matrices.

F _(64×1000) =M _(64×64) ×S _(64×1000)   (13)

F is a matrix that spans all single components decays in the echo train space. S is a matrix of independent components (latent variables) of the corresponding type of acquisition (Created from ICA (Independent component analysis), using the fastICA algorithm, available with MΛTLΛB, of the F matrix). M is the mixing matrix. Both M and S need to be estimated. Once S and M are found the manner of compressing data is as follows:

E _(1×1000) =A _(1×64) ×M _(64×64) ×S _(64×1000)   (14)

let

Comp_(1×64) =A _(1×64) ×M _(64×64)   (14a)

Comp is called the Compression vector. Eqn 4. can then be written into:

E _(1×1000)=Comp_(1×64) ×S _(64×1000)   (15)

Now multiply to the right both sides by inverse of S=>S⁻¹.

E _(1×1000) ×S ⁻¹ _(1000×64)=Comp_(1×64) ×S _(64×1000) ×S ⁻¹ _(1000×64)

which leads to

E _(1×1000) ×S ⁻¹ _(1000×64)=Comp_(1×64)   (16)

But the eigenanalysis of the Covariance of F tells us that beyond component 6 there will be almost zero percent of variance left as the following table shows:

TABLE 2 Analysis of the variance contribution in each eigenvector of the Covariance(F) Eigenvector Variance of Variance of Number Eigenvalue of this previous + this Of Cov(F) Cov(F) Component [%] Component [%] 1 214.0 94.3923 94.3923 2 10.70 4.7247 99.1171 3 1.57 0.6920 99.8091 4 0.327 0.1439 99.9530 5 0.0790 0.0348 99.9878 6 0.0203 0.0090 99.9968 7 0.00537 0.0024 99.9991 8 0.001420 0.0006 99.9998 9 0.000376 0.0002 99.9999 10 0.0000984 0.0000 100.0000 11 0.00002550 0.0000 100.0000 12 0.00000651 0.0000 100.0000 13 0.00000164 0.0000 100.0000 14 0.00000041 0.0000 100.0000 15 0.00000010 0.0000 100.0000

Thus Eqn. 16 can be reduced into:

E _(1×1000) ×S ⁻¹ _(1000×6)=Comp_(1×6)   (17).

Eqn. 17 is applied in the downhole tool for compression of echo trains. Eqn. 15 becomes Eqn. 18 and is applied in the surface system to decompress the mud-pulse-transmitted data:

E _(1×1000)=Comp_(1×6) ×S _(6×1000)   (18)

Eqn. 17 tells us that providing the inverse of a reduced form of the S matrix, we can compress an echo-train of length 1000, (and if we have an echo-train of length N, we need to create the S matrix of size 6×N,) into a 1×6 matrix. Furthermore Eqn. 18 tells us we could recover the echo-train by using the same model (independent components) and the corresponding compression.

The PCA algorithm differs from the ICA in the way that the decomposition is carried out. For the purposes of the present disclosure, we may refer to them collectively as Component Analysis. Through Principal Component Analysis we decompose the F matrix into 2 matrices.

F _(64×1000)=Scores_(64×64)×Loads_(64×1000)   (19),

Where F is a matrix that spans all single components decays, Loads is a matrix of eigenvectors of the corresponding type of acquisition (Created from Principal components decomposition of the F matrix) and scores are the eigenvalues of Matrix F. It is to be noted that Scores forms an orthogonal set (Scores_(i) ^(T) Scores_(j)=0 for i≠j) and Loads forms an orthonormal set (Loads_(i) ^(T) Loads_(j)=0 for i≠j and =1 for i=j)=>Loads^(T)=Loads⁻¹. The scores Scores_(i) of T is a linear combination of F defined by Loads_(i) that is to say that Scores_(i) is the projection of F on Loads_(i). by replacing the value of F in Eqn. 10 into Eqn. 2

E _(1×1000) =A _(1×64)×Scores_(64×64)×Loads_(64×1000)   (20).

Let

Comp_(1×64) =A _(1×64)×Scores_(64×64)   (20a)

Comp is what we call a Compression vector. Eqn. 20a can then be written into:

E _(1×1000)=Comp_(1×64)×Loads_(64×1000)   (21)

Now multiplying to the right by inverse of Loads=>Loads⁻¹, and using the fact that Loads⁻¹=Loads^(T)

E _(1×1000)×Loads^(T) _(1000×64)=Comp_(1×64)×Loads_(64×1000)×Loads^(T) _(1000×64)

which leads to

E _(1×1000)×Loads^(T) _(1000×64)=Comp_(1×64)   (22)

Eqn. 22 tells us that we could compress the whole Echo-Train from 1000 points into 64 points without losing any information. Analysis of PCA tells us that beyond component 5 there will be almost zero percent of variance left as the following table shows:

TABLE 3 Analysis of the variance contribution in each PCA component Variance of Variance of Principal Eigenvalue of this previous + this Component Cov(F) Component [%] Component [%] 1 214.0 94.3923 94.3923 2 10.70 4.7247 99.1171 3 1.57 0.6920 99.8091 4 0.327 0.1439 99.9530 5 0.0790 0.0348 99.9878 6 0.0203 0.0090 99.9968 7 0.00537 0.0024 99.9991 8 0.001420 0.0006 99.9998 9 0.000376 0.0002 99.9999 10 0.0000984 0.0000 100.0000 11 0.00002550 0.0000 100.0000 12 0.00000651 0.0000 100.0000 13 0.00000164 0.0000 100.0000 14 0.00000041 0.0000 100.0000 15 0.00000010 0.0000 100.0000 Thus Eqn. 22 can be reduced into:

E _(1×1000)×Loads^(T) _(1000×5)=Comp_(1×5)   (23)

and Eqn. 21 becomes:

E _(1×1000)=Comp_(1×5)×Loads_(5×1000)   (24)

Eqn, 23 tells us that providing a reduced form of the Loads matrix, we can compress an Echo-Train of length 1000, (and if we have an Echo-train of length N, we need to create the Loads matrix of size 5×N,) into 1×5 matrix. Furthermore Eqn. 24 tells us we could recover the echo-train by using the same model and the corresponding compression.

To summarize, the ICA algorithm can be basically be used as a replacement of the PCA.

Those versed in the art would recognize that using the method of the present disclosure, it is possible to reconstruct and display many of the properties of interest in real-time. For the purposes of the present disclosure, the discussion of real-time given next is helpful:

-   -   The design of real-time systems is becoming increasingly         important. Computers have been incorporated into cars, aircraft,         manufacturing assembly lines, and other applications to control         processes as they occur-known as “in real time.” It is not         practical in such instances to provide input to the computer,         allow it to compute for some indefinite length of time, and then         examine the output. The computer output must be available in a         timely fashion, and the processor (or processors) must be         carefully chosen and the tasks specially scheduled so that         deadlines are met. . . .     -   A good example of a system that requires real-time action is the         antilock braking system (ABS) on most newer vehicles; because it         is critical that the ABS instantly react to brake-pedal pressure         and begin a program of pumping the brakes, such an application         is said to have a hard deadline. Some other real-time systems         are said to have soft deadlines, in that, although it is deemed         important to meet them, no disaster will happen if the system's         response is slightly delayed; an example is ocean shipping and         tracking systems. The concept of “best effort” arises in         real-time system design, not only because soft deadlines may         sometimes be slipped, but because hard deadlines may sometimes         be met by computing a less than optimal result. computer         science.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopaedia         Britannica OnLine.         -   19 May 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article•21949>.

In the context of the present disclosure, the recreation of properties of interest may cover the T₁ distribution, T₂ distribution, volumetrics, permeability, echo trains, and other rock and fluid properties that are based on NMR data. As noted in Hamdan, bound volume irreducible, effective porosity, bound water, clay-bound water, and total porosity are among the formation properties that may be determined. From the T₂ relaxation spectrum, using an inversion method it is possible to estimate the pore-size distribution. The use of a pore-scale geometric model used in inverting NMR spectra is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 7,363,131 to Georgi et al., having the same assignee as the present disclosure and the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Determination of permeability is discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,686,736 to Schoen et al., having the same assignee as the present disclosure and the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. While most of these do not require action in real-time, there are certain situations in which action is required. For example, any deviation of interpreted BVI and CBW from a normal compaction trend is indicative of an overpressured formation. Immediate action is needed to avoid a blowout.

Expounding on the principle that a picture is worth a thousand words, we next discuss examples of displays that can be produced in real time using the method of the present disclosure. Parenthetically, it should be noted that this principle has been well recognized in the past with regard to resistivity measurements, where a resistivity image gives a great deal of information to an observer about the layering and structure of an earth formation, far more so than a bunch of numbers. In NMR, the image of a distribution makes it possible to recognize formations, geologic facies, and fluid types because the T₂ distribution is like a fingerprint.

For example, Georgi discloses a method of evaluating an earth formation containing clastics. NMR signals indicative of a property of the earth formation are obtained. A pore-scale model including grains of the clastics is defined. An NMR response is simulated using the pore-scale model. A parameter of the pore-scale model is adjusted using the simulated response and the NMR signals. The simulated NMR response may include an NMR relaxation time spectrum and adjusting the parameter may be based on deriving a magnetization relaxation spectrum from the NMR signals and using the difference between the NMR relaxation time spectrum and the magnetization relaxation spectrum. As an extension of the work of Georgi, the present disclosure envisages more complicated models of the grain size distribution. For example, a Weibull distribution may be used to characterize the grain size.

${f(X)} = {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{3}{\alpha_{i}\frac{\beta_{i}}{\gamma_{i}}\left( \frac{X}{\gamma_{i}} \right)^{\beta_{i} - 1}{\exp\left( {- \left( \frac{X}{\gamma_{i}} \right)^{\beta_{i}}} \right)}}}$

where β is a shape factor, χ is a scale factor, α is an intensity

${X > 0},{\alpha_{i} > 0},{\beta_{i} > 0},{\gamma_{i} > 0},{{\sum\alpha_{i}} = 1},{X = {\ln \left( \frac{r_{g}}{r_{g,0}} \right)}},$

where r_(g) is the grain size and r_(g,0) is a minimum grain size.

Turning to FIG. 7, shown is a thin section of a rock sample. Identified on it are the different types of fluids that may be in the rock sample. 709 shows an exemplary NMR spin echo signal from the sample, and 701, 703, 705 and 707 show the T₂ distributions that can be recovered from the echo train 709. While this particular example was not generated in real time, with the method of the present disclosure, it is possible to generate such displays in real time, subject to the cautionary note above in the quote from the Encyclopedia Britannica. The point to note that a skilled observer, seeing one or more of the T₂ distributions shown in FIG. 7 can immediately draw some conclusions about the fluid distribution in the rock.

FIG. 8 illustrates the volumetrics of the rock sample and thus includes, in the illustration, characteristic T₂ distributions. Note that the distribution of light hydrocarbons is similar to that of moveable water, and the distribution of heavy oil is similar to that for CBW.

FIG. 9 illustrates T₂ distributions when all effects other than grain size are disregarded. This is one of the benefits of the pore-scale modeling. There is a clear trend from vary rapid signal decay for clays to much slower signal decay 911 for coarse sands 913.

FIG. 10 shows an exemplary well log display Track 1 1001 is a conventional gamma ray and caliper display. Track 2 1003 shows resistivity and permeability estimates, track 3 1005 shows the mean T₂, the CBW cutoff, the BVI cutoff and the T₂ distribution. Track 4 1007 shows the volumetrics: there are curves for free fluid volume, BVI, total porosity, Bound water and clay bound water. It is worth emphasizing again that the ability to have a display of this kind in realtime would be invaluable.

In another embodiment of the disclosure, a hierarchical clustering scheme is used to identify clustering in the T₂ distributions that are estimated at the plurality of depths in the borehole. In hierarchical clustering the data are not partitioned into a particular cluster in a single step. Instead, a series of partitions takes place, which may run from a single cluster containing all objects to n clusters each containing a single object. Hierarchical Clustering is subdivided into agglomerative methods, which proceed by series of fusions of the n objects into groups, and divisive methods, which separate n objects successively into finer groupings. Agglomerative techniques are more commonly used, and this is the method implemented in the present disclosure. FIG. 11B shows the dendograms of the clusters while FIG. 11A shows the distances. Such unsupervised clustering methods are useful in identifying groupings of depths in the borehole that have similar NMR properties. This is discussed next.

FIG. 12 is a plot in which the last track 1211 shows the natural clustering found in the data. FIG. 13 shows the mean T₂ distribution for each of the five clusters that were identified. At this point, the significance of the clustering is not clear.

However, turning to the pore-size distribution estimated for the first cluster (FIG. 14B) identifies the cluster as a stratified gravely silty sand. The stratification is evidenced by the multimodal peaks in the distribution 1401. The T₂ distribution for this cluster 1403 shows that much of the water is bound.

Cluster 2 is a silty fine-grained sand. See FIG. 15B. Cluster 3 is a clay (see FIG. 16), the grain size of the clays being below the limit in which the pore-scale reconstruction can estimate the grain size. Cluster 4 is a shaly silg (FIG. 17) while cluster 5 is a silt (FIG. 18).

In addition to providing information about the earth formation, the reconstructed distributions can also be used for quality control. For example, the T₂ distribution for cluster 1 (1413 in FIG. 14) shows a significant value at the right hand side. This is an indication that the fluid may not be fully polarized, and appropriate remedial action, such as increasing the wait time TW, may be taken. If, on the other hand, there is no signal in the late components of the T₂ distribution, it suggests that the wait time TW can be reduced, resulting in a higher vertical resolution of the log. Commands for altering the acquisition sequence can thus be sent in real-time.

The perceptive observer may have noted that in each of the five clusters shown in FIGS. 14-18, the peaks of the T₂ distribution appear to be correlated with the peaks of the grain size. This is to be expected as a peak in the grain size distribution means that there will be lot of pore throats having a size corresponding to the grain size, and hence we would get a higher contribution to the T₂ distribution from the fluid regime corresponding to that particular pore size

An important aspect of the hierarchical clustering is that the pore-size distribution may be inferred without having to recover core samples. This is particularly true when the pore-size distribution is evaluated in conjunction with other measurements indicative of texture, such as resistivity images and acoustic images of the borehole wall. This results in a considerable savings in time and money.

Implicit in the control and processing of the data is the use of a computer program implemented on a suitable machine readable medium that enables the processor to perform the control and processing. The machine readable medium may include ROMs, EPROMs, EAROMs, Flash Memories and Optical disks. 

1. A method of estimating a value of a property of an earth formation comprising: conveying a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensing apparatus into a borehole; using the NMR sensing apparatus for obtaining at least one signal indicative of the property of the earth formation; representing the at least one signal using a set of basis vectors derived from component analysis of the at least one signal; telemetering a representation of the at least one signal as a combination of the basis vectors to a surface location; reconstructing the at least one signal at the surface location using the telemetered representation; and using the reconstruction of the at least one signal to estimate the value of the property of the earth formation.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the basis vectors are derived from one of: (i) a Principal Component Analysis, and (ii) an Independent Component analysis.
 3. The method of claim 1 further comprising using basis vectors derived from performing the component analysis at one of: (i) a surface location, and (ii) a downhole location.
 4. The method of claim 1 further comprising reconstructing the at least one signal at a surface location substantially in real time.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein at least one signal is selected from: (i) spin echo signals representative of a transverse relaxation time (T₂) distribution, and (ii) signals representative of a longitudinal relaxation time (T₁) distribution.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the property is at least one of: (i) bound volume irreducible, (ii) effective porosity, (iii) bound water, (iv) clay-bound water, (v) total porosity, (vi) a permeability, and (vii) a pore size distribution.
 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the at least one signal comprises at least two signals, the method further comprising concatenating the at least two signals prior to using the basis vectors.
 8. The method of claim 1 further comprising controlling a drilling operation using the estimated value of the property.
 9. An apparatus configured to estimate a value of a property of an earth formation comprising: a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensing apparatus configured to be conveyed into a borehole and obtain at least one signal indicative of the property of the earth formation; and at least one processor configured to: (i) represent the at least one signal using a set of basis vectors derived from component analysis of the at least one signal; (ii) telemeter a representation of the at least one signal as a combination of the basis vectors to a surface location; (iii) reconstruct the at least one signal at the surface location using the telemetered representation; and (iv) use the reconstruction of the at least one signal to estimate a value of the property of the earth formation.
 10. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the basis vectors are derived from one of: (i) a Principal Component Analysis, and (ii) an Independent Component analysis.
 11. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the at least one processor is further configured to use basis vectors derived from performing the component analysis at one of: (i) a surface location, and (ii) a downhole location.
 12. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the at least one processor is further configured to reconstruct the at least one signal at a surface location substantially in real time.
 13. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein at least one signal produced by the NMR sensing apparatus is selected from: (i) spin echo signals representative of a transverse relaxation time (T₂) distribution, and (ii) signals representative of a longitudinal relaxation time (T₁) distribution.
 14. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the property of which the at least one processor estimates a value is at least one of: (i) bound volume irreducible, (ii) effective porosity, (iii) bound water, (iv) clay-bound water, (v) total porosity, (vi) a permeability, and (vii) a pore size distribution.
 15. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the NMR sensing apparatus is conveyed by a drillstring on a bottomhole assembly.
 16. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the at least one processor is further configured to control a drilling operation using the determined property.
 17. A computer-readable medium product having stored thereon instructions that when read by at least one processor cause the at least one processor to perform a method, the method comprising: (i) representing, using a set of basis vectors derived from component analysis at least one signal obtained by a nuclear magnetic resonance sensing apparatus in a borehole; (ii) telemetering a representation of the at least one signal as a combination of the basis vectors to a surface location; (iii) reconstructing the at least one signal at the surface location using the telemetered representation; and (iv) use the reconstruction of the at least one signal to estimate a value of the property of the earth formation. 